New AirSnitch attack breaks Wi-Fi encryption in homes, offices, and enterprises

Ars Technica · Feb 26, 2026 · Collected from RSS

Full Article

CLOWNS TO THE LEFT, JOKERS TO THE RIGHT That guest network you set up for your neighbors may not be as secure as you think. Credit: Getty Image | BlackJack3D Credit: Getty Image | BlackJack3D It’s hard to overstate the role that Wi-Fi plays in virtually every facet of life. The organization that shepherds the wireless protocol says that more than 48 billion Wi-Fi-enabled devices have shipped since it debuted in the late 1990s. One estimate pegs the number of individual users at 6 billion, roughly 70 percent of the world’s population. Despite the dependence and the immeasurable amount of sensitive data flowing through Wi-Fi transmissions, the history of the protocol has been littered with security landmines stemming both from the inherited confidentiality weaknesses of its networking predecessor, Ethernet (it was once possible for anyone on a network to read and modify the traffic sent to anyone else), and the ability for anyone nearby to receive the radio signals Wi-Fi relies on. Ghost in the machine In the early days, public Wi-Fi networks often resembled the Wild West, where ARP spoofing attacks that allowed renegade users to read other users’ traffic were common. The solution was to build cryptographic protections that prevented nearby parties—whether an authorized user on the network or someone near the AP (access point)—from reading or tampering with the traffic of any other user. New research shows that behaviors that occur at the very lowest levels of the network stack make encryption—in any form, not just those that have been broken in the past—incapable of providing client isolation, an encryption-enabled protection promised by all router makers, that is intended to block direct communication between two or more connected clients. The isolation can effectively be nullified through AirSnitch, the name the researchers gave to a series of attacks that capitalize on the newly discovered weaknesses. Various forms of AirSnitch work across a broad range of routers, including those from Netgear, D-Link, Ubiquity, Cisco, and those running DD-WRT and OpenWrt. AirSnitch “breaks worldwide Wi-Fi encryption, and it might have the potential to enable advanced cyberattacks,” Xin’an Zhou, the lead author of the research paper, said in an interview. “Advanced attacks can build on our primitives to [perform] cookie stealing, DNS and cache poisoning. Our research physically wiretaps the wire altogether so these sophisticated attacks will work. It’s really a threat to worldwide network security.” Zhou presented his research on Wednesday at the 2026 Network and Distributed System Security Symposium. Previous Wi-Fi attacks that overnight broke existing protections such as WEP and WPA worked by exploiting vulnerabilities in the underlying encryption they used. AirSnitch, by contrast, targets a previously overlooked attack surface—the lowest levels of the networking stack, a hierarchy of architecture and protocols based on their functions and behaviors. The lowest level, Layer-1, encompasses physical devices such as cabling, connected nodes, and all the things that allow them to communicate. The highest level, Layer-7, is where applications such as browsers, email clients, and other Internet software run. Levels 2 through 6 are known as the Data, Link, Network, Transport, Session, and Presentation layers, respectively. Identity crisis Unlike previous Wi-Fi attacks, AirSnitch exploits core features in Layers 1 and 2 and the failure to bind and synchronize a client across these and higher layers, other nodes, and other network names such as SSIDs (Service Set Identifiers). This cross-layer identity desynchronization is the key driver of AirSnitch attacks. The most powerful such attack is a full, bidirectional machine-in-the-middle (MitM) attack, meaning the attacker can view and modify data before it makes its way to the intended recipient. The attacker can be on the same SSID, a separate one, or even a separate network segment tied to the same AP. It works against small Wi-Fi networks in both homes and offices and large networks in enterprises. With the ability to intercept all link-layer traffic (that is, the traffic as it passes between Layers 1 and 2), an attacker can perform other attacks on higher layers. The most dire consequence occurs when an Internet connection isn’t encrypted—something that Google recently estimated occurred when as much as 6 percent and 20 percent of pages loaded on Windows and Linux, respectively. In these cases, the attacker can view and modify all traffic in the clear and steal authentication cookies, passwords, payment card details, and any other sensitive data. Since many company intranets are sent in plaintext, traffic from them can also be intercepted. Even when HTTPS is in place, an attacker can still intercept domain look-up traffic and use DNS cache poisoning to corrupt tables stored by the target’s operating system. The AirSnitch MitM also puts the attacker in the position to wage attacks against vulnerabilities that may not be patched. Attackers can also see the external IP addresses hosting webpages being visited and often correlate them with the precise URL. Given the range of possibilities it affords, AirSnitch gives attackers capabilities that haven’t been possible with other Wi-Fi attacks, including KRACK from 2017 and 2019 and more recent Wi-Fi attacks that, like AirSnitch, inject data (known as frames) into remote GRE tunnels and bypass network access control lists. “This work is impressive because unlike other frame injection methods, the attacker controls a bidirectional flow,” said HD Moore, a security expert and the founder and CEO of runZero. He continued: This research shows that a wireless-connected attacker can subvert client isolation and implement full relay attacks against other clients, similar to old-school ARP spoofing. In a lot of ways, this restores the attack surface that was present before client isolation became common. For folks who lived through the chaos of early wireless guest networking rollouts (planes, hotels, coffee shops) this stuff should be familiar, but client isolation has become so common, these kinds of attacks may have fallen off people’s radar. Stuck in the middle with you The MitM targets Layers 1 and 2 and the interaction between them. It starts with port stealing, one of the earliest attack classes of Ethernet. An attacker carries it out by modifying the Layer-1 mapping that associates a network port with a victim’s MAC—a unique address that identifies each connected device. By connecting to the BSSID that bridges the AP to a radio frequency the target isn’t using (usually a 2.4GHz or 5GHz) and completing a Wi-Fi four-way handshake, the attacker replaces the target’s MAC with one of their own. With this, an attacker redirects all downlink traffic (data sent from the router) intended for the target to the attacker’s device. Once the switch at Layer-2 sees the response, it updates its MAC address table to preserve the new mapping for as long as the attacker needs. This completes the first half of the MitM, allowing all data to flow to the attacker. That alone would result in little more than a denial of service for the target. To prevent the target from noticing—and more importantly, to gain the ability to perform more advanced attacks—the attacker needs a way to restore the original mapping (the one assigning the victim’s MAC to the Layer-1 port). An attacker performs this restoration by sending an ICMP ping from a random MAC. The ping, which must be wrapped in a Group Temporal key shared among all clients, triggers replies that cause the Layer-1 mapping (i.e., port states) to revert back to the original one. “In a normal Layer-2 switch, the switch learns the MAC of the client by seeing it respond with its source address,” Moore explained. “This attack confuses the AP into thinking that the client reconnected elsewhere, allowing an attacker to redirect Layer-2 traffic. Unlike Ethernet switches, wireless APs can’t tie a physical port on the device to a single client; clients are mobile by design.” The back-and-forth flipping of the MAC from the attacker to the target, and vice versa, can continue for as long as the attacker wants. With that, the bidirectional MitM has been achieved. Attackers can then perform a host of other attacks, both related to AirSnitch or ones such as the cache poisoning discussed earlier. Depending on the router the target is using, the attack can be performed even when the attacker and target are connected to separate SSIDs connected by the same AP. In some cases, Zhou said, the attacker can even be connected from the Internet. “Even when the guest SSID has a different name and password, it may still share parts of the same internal network infrastructure as your main Wi-Fi,” the researcher explained. “In some setups, that shared infrastructure can allow unexpected connectivity between guest devices and trusted devices.” No, enterprise defenses won’t protect you Variations of the attack defeat the client isolation promised by makers of enterprise routers, which typically use credentials and a master encryption key that are unique to each client. One such attack works across multiple APs when they share a wired distribution system, as is common in enterprise and campus networks. In their paper, AirSnitch: Demystifying and Breaking Client Isolation in Wi-Fi Networks, the researchers wrote: Although port stealing was originally devised for hosts on the same switch, we show that attackers can hijack MAC-to-port mappings at a higher layer, i.e., at the level of the distribution switch—to intercept traffic to victims associated with different APs. This escalates the attack beyond its traditional limits, breaking the assumption that separate APs provide effective isolation. This discovery exposes a blind spot in client isolation: even physically separated APs, broadcasting different SSIDs, offer ineffective isolation if conn